Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is a technique for using technology in the field of language learning. Many studies worldwide have been conducted to investigate the effect of CALL on learning languages. Research results demonstrated a positive effect of CALL on students' learning and language competency.
In the context of UAE (Uninterruptible Application Error) The name given to a crash in Windows 3.0. In subsequent versions of Windows, a crash was called a "General Protection Fault," "Application Error" or "Illegal Operation." See crash in Windows and abend. , studies involving CALL use are minimal. Almekhlafi (2004) investigated the effect of interactive multimedia (IMM) CD-ROM CD-ROM: see compact disc.
CD-ROM
in full compact disc read-only memory
Type of computer storage medium that is read optically (e.g., by a laser). on the achievement of sixth grade students in relation to their learning styles. Results showed no significant difference between the two groups in the overall achievement. However, results showed that field-independent learners scored significantly higher than field-dependent (1). One of the recommendations stated in the study was that IMM should be investigated as an individualized in·di·vid·u·al·ize
tr.v. in·di·vid·u·al·ized, in·di·vid·u·al·iz·ing, in·di·vid·u·al·iz·es
1. To give individuality to.
2. To consider or treat individually; particularize.
3. learning tool. Therefore, this study focused on independent CALL use by elementary-prep school students in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). It investigated the effect of CALL on students' achievement of English as a foreign language (EFL) and their attitude toward CALL use.
According to according to
prep.
1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.
2. In keeping with: according to instructions.
3. Wikipedia encyclopedia encyclopedia, compendium of knowledge, either general (attempting to cover all fields) or specialized (aiming to be comprehensive in a particular field). Encyclopedias and Other Reference Books
(2005), CALL is defined as an approach to language teaching and learning in which computer technology is used as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement reinforcement /re·in·force·ment/ (-in-fors´ment) in behavioral science, the presentation of a stimulus following a response that increases the frequency of subsequent responses, whether positive to desirable events, or , and assessment of material to be learned, usually including a substantial interactive element. In the light of this definition and for the purpose of this study, the researcher defines CALL as the use of multimedia CD-ROM combining text, pictures, audio, and video files for the purpose of teaching English as a foreign language TEFL or Teaching English as a foreign language refers to teaching English to students for whom it is not their mother tongue. TEFL can take place in English-speaking regions, for example in language schools or summer camps or before the start of a university degree, but .
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Research on the effect of technology in general on teaching and learning has been conducted and continues to be investigated. One of the most prominent fields of research has been on interactive multimedia and its effect on leaning in different fields including language learning. Literature review for the purpose of this study focuses on two domains (a) multimedia and language learning and teaching, and (b) CALL.
The Use of Multimedia in Teacher Education
Many researchers have called for and emphasized the importance of the inclusion of technology in teacher education (Volk, 2000; Gentile, Lonberger, Parana, & West, 2000; Chester, 2001; Schnackenberg, Luik, Nisan, & Servant, 2001; & Berlin & White, 2002). Educational research investigating the utility of technology for learning and teaching has been continuous for several decades. One form of this integration is with the use of multimedia. The educational benefits of multimedia are well documented (Moore, 2000). Multimedia has been used with student teachers to improve their training and hence the quality of education (Almekhlafi, 2004). However, multimedia research was not always consistent in its results. Some studies yielded positive effect (Soboleva & Tronenko 2002; Moreno, Mayer, Spires, & Lester, 2001; Frear & Hirschbuhl, 1999; Vignola, Kenny, Andrews, & Schilz, 1999; James, 1999; Vrtacnik et al., 2000; Buckley, 2000; Wydra, 2001; Cairncross & Mannion, 2001; Almekhlafi, 2001), while others did not (Smith & Woody Woody
Slang to describe when the market has a strong and quick upward movement.
Notes:
For example, you'll hear "the market has a woody," when the market is performing well... seriously, we don't make this stuff up. , 2000; McKethan, Everhart, & Sanders San´ders
n. 1. An old name of sandalwood, now applied only to the red sandalwood. See under Sandalwood. , 2001; Vichitvejpaisal et al., 2001; Nutta et al., 2002; & Hayes, Taub, Robinson III, & Sivo, 2003).
In the field of language learning, multimedia has been investigated by many researchers. Results indicated a positive effect of multimedia on learning languages (Liou, 1995; Johnston & Milne, 1995; Asay, 1995; Chun & Plass, 1996; Al-Segheer, 2001; Tsou, Wang, & Li, 2002; Noriko, 2002).
Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) Research
CALL research has been ongoing for decades investigating CALL use in different contexts and with different languages worldwide. Its potential for learning and teaching in the field of foreign languages has been discussed and documented by many researchers (Crosby, 1997; Peterson, 1998; Charischak, 2000; Vrtacnik et al., 2000; Ayres, 2002; Nesselhauf & Tschichold, 2002; Egbert, Paulus, & Nakamichi, 2002; Robert, 2002; Cushion & Dominique, 2002; Schwienhorst, 2002; Jung, 2002; Bayraktar, 2002; Chika-matsu, 2003; Fenfang, 2003).
Charischak (2000) stated that for long time, basic drill and practice software programs dominated the market in CALL. Supporting this claim, Robert (2002) pointed out that the use of computers to assist learners in their language studies has increased phenomenally over the past decade.
Cushion and Dominique (2002) described how recent technological developments have provided the possibility of overcoming technical problems in conjunction with the Java programming language and the Unicode character numbering system. Schwienhorst (2002) discussed CALL and focused on the benefits of virtual reality environments, particularly for foreign language contexts.
For many years, foreign language teachers have used the computer to provide supplemental exercises. Recently, due to technology advancement, teachers started to consider the use of computers as an essential part of daily foreign language teaching and learning. Technology has the potential to play a major role in foreign language teaching and learning. A lot of attention has been paid to the use of CALL in foreign languages teaching and learning.
In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"
put differently , CALL gained considerable attention from different entities including researchers and writers. Peterson (1998) stated that CALL has developed from small beginnings into a major element in many university language programs in Japan. The number of individual educators incorporating CALL materials into their classes has increased markedly. This increase of interest in CALL, and educational technology in general, has also been manifested in the increase in the number of CALL facilities created within universities and schools.
Some writers devoted whole books for the discussion of CALL. For example, Kulik and Kulik (1991) stated that a meta-analysis of findings from 254 controlled evaluation studies showed that computer-based instruction (CBI CBI
abbr.
cumulative book index
CBI Confederation of British Industry
CBI n abbr (= Confederation of British Industry) → C.E.O.E. ) usually produces positive effects on students. The studies covered learners of all age levels from kindergarten kindergarten [Ger.,=garden of children], system of preschool education. Friedrich Froebel designed (1837) the kindergarten to provide an educational situation less formal than that of the elementary school but one in which children's creative play instincts would be pupils to adult students.
In the year 1997, The Computer Assisted Language Learning Journal devoted a special issue, "The virtual learning environment," reviewed by Crosby (1997) for CALL environment and effect on learning and teaching. Following the same path, Levy (1997) wrote Computer Assisted Language Learning: Context and Conceptualization con·cep·tu·al·ize
v. con·cep·tu·al·ized, con·cep·tu·al·iz·ing, con·cep·tu·al·iz·es
v.tr.
To form a concept or concepts of, and especially to interpret in a conceptual way: , a discussion of CALL including a historical review of CALL projects from the 1960s to the 1990s.
Conrad (1996) noted that there had been a meager mea·ger also mea·gre
adj.
1. Deficient in quantity, fullness, or extent; scanty.
2. Deficient in richness, fertility, or vigor; feeble: the meager soil of an eroded plain.
3. output of CALL effectiveness research published by the recognized second language acquisition journals, and that the 19 empirical studies Empirical studies in social sciences are when the research ends are based on evidence and not just theory. This is done to comply with the scientific method that asserts the objective discovery of knowledge based on verifiable facts of evidence. he did uncover represent almost as many different specific areas of CALL applications. Research conducted in this area has documented many positive effects on students' achievement and learning. Recently, Jung (2002) presented a bibliography bibliography. The listing of books is of ancient origin. Lists of clay tablets have been found at Nineveh and elsewhere; the library at Alexandria had subject lists of its books. on CALL. Most citations were post-1997 journal articles and book publications.
In a similar vein, Bayraktar (2002) conducted a meta-analysis of the effectiveness of computer assisted instruction (CAI (1) (Computer-Assisted Instruction) Same as CBT.
(2) See CA.
CAI - Computer-Aided Instruction ) on student achievement in secondary and college science education compared to traditional instruction. Results showed a small positive effect for CAI use when used in simulation or tutorial An instructional book or program that takes the user through a prescribed sequence of steps in order to learn a product. Contrast with documentation, which, although instructional, tends to group features and functions by category. See tutorials in this publication. models, with individual computer use, and when used as a supplement to traditional instruction.
Attitudes towards CALL and other types of technology have been investigated. In most cases, positive attitudes towards CALL were documented. For example, Escalada & Zollman (1997) demonstrated in their study, the effects on student learning and attitudes of using interactive digital video in the physics classroom, showing that interactive video materials were appropriate for the activity-based environment used in the course on concepts of physics. Klassen and Milton (1999) evaluated the effectiveness of a multimedia based English language English language, member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages (see Germanic languages). Spoken by about 470 million people throughout the world, English is the official language of about 45 nations. learning program at a Hong Kong Hong Kong (hŏng kŏng), Mandarin Xianggang, special administrative region of China, formerly a British crown colony (2005 est. pop. 6,899,000), land area 422 sq mi (1,092 sq km), adjacent to Guangdong prov. university. Results demonstrated positive attitudinal changes for the multimedia enhanced mode of learning. Similarly, Vrtacnik et al. (2000) stated that most of the studies reported about higher achievements and better attitudes towards science and computers when computer-based approaches were introduced in the classroom.
More recently, Ayres (2002) examined students' attitudes towards the use of CALL and reported that the subjects' attitudes towards English Learning increased significantly. The study also revealed that there was a link between pupils' attitudes and their level of computer literacy Understanding computers and related systems. It includes a working vocabulary of computer and information system components, the fundamental principles of computer processing and a perspective for how non-technical people interact with technical people. , language level and age. Holmes (1998) surveyed 100 Japanese first year students investigated the influence of CALL in their language classroom and on language education in Japan in general. Similarly, Robert (2002) examined students' attitudes towards the use of CALL, and their perceived view of its relevancy to their course of study. Vrtacnik et al. (2000) examined the effects of interactive multimedia tutorial teaching unit on students' perception and understanding of chemical concepts in the Netherlands.
Following the same path, Noriko (2002) developed a language tutor Language Tutor is a rapid language learning solution that helps naive users express themselves in day-to-day life. The Language Tutor is being developed at Carnegie Mellon University and is a visionary project of Dr. program to develop learners' grammatical gram·mat·i·cal
adj.
1. Of or relating to grammar.
2. Conforming to the rules of grammar: a grammatical sentence. and sentence production skills in Japanese language Japanese language
Language spoken by about 125 million people on the islands of Japan, including the Ryukyus. The only other language of the Japanese archipelago is Ainu (see Ainu), now spoken by only a handful of people on Hokkaido, though once much more widespread. . The study revealed that students' achievement improved tremendously. To measure their attitude towards the program, the researcher designed a questionnaire. The results indicated an enthusiastic student response.
Likewise, Chikamatsu (2003) pointed out that CALL gains popularity and is becoming standard in foreign language classrooms. The researcher examined the effects of computers on writing efficiency and quality among intermediate learners of Japanese. One of the findings was that accuracy rates and number of kanji (human language, character) kanji - /kahn'jee/ (From the Japanese "kan" - the Chinese Han dynasty, and "ji" - glyph or letter of the alphabet. Not capitalised. Plural "kanji") The Japanese word for a Han character used in Japanese. characters used were significantly different, indicating that learners benefited from computer writing.
From previous research, it can be concluded that the use of CALL is very beneficial for language learning and students' attitudes toward CALL was positive, particularly if CALL applications were well-designed and used. For example, CALL effectiveness and students positive attitudes toward it was documented in many research studies (Conrad, 1996; Vrtacnik et al.; 2000, Ayres, 2002; Bayraktar, 2002; Jung, 2002; Noriko, 2002; Robert, 2002).
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
As the use of CALL in this study involved the use of technology and participants' attitude towards this use, Fishbein's (1963, 1967) Reasoned Action Theory (RAT) and constructivism constructivism, Russian art movement founded c.1913 by Vladimir Tatlin, related to the movement known as suprematism. After 1916 the brothers Naum Gabo and Antoine Pevsner gave new impetus to Tatlin's art of purely abstract (although politically intended) were used as the theoretical framework to illuminate il·lu·mi·nate
v. il·lu·mi·nat·ed, il·lu·mi·nat·ing, il·lu·mi·nates
v.tr.
1. To provide or brighten with light.
2. To decorate or hang with lights.
3. the results of the study. The RAT developed by Fishbein, is a cognitive theory Conitive theory may refer to:
- Theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget's theory of development and the theories which spawned from it.
- Two factor theory of emotion, another cognitive theory.
n.
1. The act or an instance of making a conscious choice or decision.
2. A conscious choice or decision.
3. The power or faculty of choosing; the will. control. It deals with the relationships between beliefs, attitudes, subjective norms, intentions, and behavior (Chitamun & Finchilescu, 2003). It is usually used to investigate attitude toward an object or some specific behavior toward that object (Almekhlafi, 2001). The theory has been tested, validated val·i·date
tr.v. val·i·dat·ed, val·i·dat·ing, val·i·dates
1. To declare or make legally valid.
2. To mark with an indication of official sanction.
3. , and used by many researchers (Pryor, 1990, 1994; Trost et al., 2002; Zint, 2002; Chitamun & Finchilescu, 2003). Trost et al. used RAT to evaluate the relative utility of the theory in explaining intentions and physical activity behavior in white and African-American eighth-grade girls. Similarly, Zint used RAT to predict science teachers' intention to incorporate environmental risk education.
Constructivism refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves building upon the foundation of their previous learning. Constructivism is being applied in different fields, one of which is in technology rich classrooms. Collins (1991) pointed out that technology appeared to be coming down on the side of constructivists, who have been trying to change the prevailing societal so·ci·e·tal
adj.
Of or relating to the structure, organization, or functioning of society.
so·ci
e·tal·ly adv.Adj. view of education. According to Collins, studies show that in technology rich classrooms there are many observable ob·serv·a·ble
adj.
1. Possible to observe: observable phenomena; an observable change in demeanor. See Synonyms at noticeable.
2. changes as opposed to traditional instruction, some of which are: (a) students are more actively engaged, (b) students learn different things instead of all students learning the same thing, and (c) an integration of both visual and verbal thinking instead of the primacy pri·ma·cy
n. pl. pri·ma·cies
1. The state of being first or foremost.
2. Ecclesiastical The office, rank, or province of primate. of verbal thinking. Lebow (1993) described five principles of the application of constructivism on technology, These principles are: (a) provide a context for learning that supports both autonomy and relatedness, (b) embed em·bed also im·bed
v. em·bed·ded, em·bed·ding, em·beds
v.tr.
1. To fix firmly in a surrounding mass: embed a post in concrete; fossils embedded in shale. the reasons for learning into the learning activity itself, (c) support self-regulation through the promotion of skills and attitudes, and (d) strengthen the learner's tendency to engage in intentional in·ten·tion·al
adj.
1. Done deliberately; intended: an intentional slight. See Synonyms at voluntary.
2. Having to do with intention. learning processes, especially by encouraging the strategic exploration or errors. These changes and principles come side by side with constructivism principles. Bailey (1996) pointed out that new technology, such as the use of multimedia, can afford rich opportunities for constructivist con·struc·tiv·ism
n.
A movement in modern art originating in Moscow in 1920 and characterized by the use of industrial materials such as glass, sheet metal, and plastic to create nonrepresentational, often geometric objects. approaches in the field of education. Hence, constructivism is an appropriate framework for this study as it will be able to explain any results yielded as a result of independent CALL use. Similarly, RAT will interpret CALL users' attitude toward its use.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Due to the fact that the number of students studying foreign languages is increasing worldwide, the need to improve their proficiency pro·fi·cien·cy
n. pl. pro·fi·cien·cies
The state or quality of being proficient; competence.
Noun 1. proficiency - the quality of having great facility and competence in these languages is crucial. English language is becoming an international language and is being used widely in businesses, universities, and other domains of life. Research efforts have been going on to investigate ways to improve learning languages including learning English as a foreign language.
One of the most recent efforts institutions, universities, and companies have been pursuing is to enhance the process of language learning has involved computer technology (Al-Sagheer, 2001), in the form of CALL.
Research on the effect of CALL on learning EFL in the UAE has not yet drawn researchers' attention. Most importantly Adv. 1. most importantly - above and beyond all other consideration; "above all, you must be independent"
above all, most especially , the UAE has a unique cultural and historical origin. It is working hard to become a global citizen where international companies and entities can prosper in the county. Thus, the UAE is committed to developing a well-educated population with proficiency in international languages, particularly English.
Due to the fact that EFL in the UAE schools is taught on average 4-6 periods weekly, and its use is limited to the classroom, students' EFL proficiency is limited and does not meet higher education higher education
Study beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. institutions demands. There have been complaints from universities and colleges that K-12 students' preparation in English is weak. Furthermore, students speak their native language outside the classroom and at home. This negatively affects EFL and results in a decrease in students proficiency.
Hopefully, CALL will constitute the solution to overcome the language competency problem of school students. Due to its flexibility, students can use CALL inside and outside classroom. They can use it as drill-and-practice software. They can use it as a reinforcement or a remediation tool to strengthen their English language competency. Consequently, students can join UAE universities and colleges with a strong background. It is worth mentioning that UAE main university scientific colleges (e.g., Engineering, Information Technology, and Science) teach their curriculum in English. Recently, the college of Education at the UAE University, which is the main public college, in the country, started to teach many of its courses in English. Hence, building a strong English language background will definitely result in better education.
In addition, this study investigated CALL effects on learning EFL as an effort to increase EFL proficiency hoping to start the steering wheel for CALL research in the UAE. Taking Almekhlafi's (2004) research recommendation into account, this study focused on the independent use rather than classroom use of CALL by elementary-prep school students in the UAE.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The study addressed the following questions:
1. Is there a significant difference in students' achievement in EFL between CALL users and nonusers due to treatment regardless of instructor?
2. Is there a significant difference in students' achievement in EFL between participants due to instructor regardless of treatment?
3. Is there a significant difference in students' achievement in EFL between participants due to the interaction effects on achievement?
4. Does CALL have any effect on students' achievement in EFL based on their computer competency, years of computer experience, and number of hours using the computer daily?
5. Does the use of CALL affect the students' perceived knowledge gain of EFL achievement?
6. Does the use of CALL affect students' attitude toward, perceived utility, and intention to use it in the future?
HYPOTHESES
Ho1: There is no significant difference in students' achievement in EFL between CALL users and nonusers due to treatment regardless of instructor?
Ho2: There is no significant difference in students' achievement in EFL between participants due to instructor regardless of treatment?
Ho3: Is there a significant difference in students' achievement in EFL between participants due to the group-instructor interaction effects?
Ho4: There is no significant difference between achievement mean scores of CALL users based on their computer competency, years of computer experience, and number of hours using the computer daily?
Ho5: There is no significant difference between perceived knowledge gain mean scores of participants before and after CALL use (experimental group).
Ho6: CALL use has no effect on users' mean scores in attitude towards, perceived utility of, and intention to use CALL in the future.
METHOD
Participants
Participants in the present study were 83 elementary-prep school students with an age span of 11 to 13 years old. They were studying EFL in the academic year 2003-2004. These students were randomly chosen from Al-Tamayoz elementary-prep school, located in Al-Ain, Abu Dhabi Abu Dhabi (ä`b
thä`bē, zä–, dä–), Arab. Abu Zabi, sheikhdom (1995 pop. 928,360), c. in the UAE. Participants' English language proficiency was intermediate as determined by language tests conducted by their teachers who participated in the data collection. One of the reasons could be because EFL is considered as one of seven courses in the curriculum students study every academic year. EFL in the UAE school is taught from 1st grade and aims at preparing students to be able to communicate in English and join university programs that provide content instruction in English. The overall content of EFL in the UAE takes all language skills into account. On average, EFL is taught for one hour a day of structured English Structured English describes procedures. The procedure may be a process in a DFD. Structure English is the marriage of English language with the syntax and structured programming. Thus structured English aims at getting the benefits of both the programming logic and natural language. instruction. In addition, English is not used as a means of communication in everyday life. The EFL syllabus A headnote; a short note preceding the text of a reported case that briefly summarizes the rulings of the court on the points decided in the case.
The syllabus appears before the text of the opinion. used in the study is the syllabus mandated by the Ministry of Education and Youth, which is a series of textbooks chosen to be used in UAE schools. The CALL material is the same materials in the textbooks as it was developed for that purpose.
As the study was conducted in a model school, technology infrastructure and access was granted for all students. The school had a computer lab with a multimedia capability, a videoconferencing A real time video session between two or more users or between two or more locations. Although the first videoconferencing was done with traditional analog TV and satellites, inhouse room systems became popular in the early 1980s after Compression Labs pioneered digitized video systems unit, a technology coordinator, and a computer engineer.
Participants' computer literacy is good for the following reasons: First, Al-Tamyooz is one of the models schools that pay special attention to technology integration into the curriculum. Computer is taught to all students as a subject. Students study computer applications and learn different computer skills regularly. They spend at least two class periods weekly at the computer lab using numerous software application and productivity tools such as interactive multimedia CD-ROMs. Second, the majority of students at Al-Tamyooz, as reported by the teachers, own their computers at home. Therefore, participants experience with computers is sufficient enough to enable them to use CALL successfully.
Participants' selection was random regardless of the classes. The final number of participants yielded 43 students in the experimental group and 40 students in the control group; a total of four classes. All subjects have the same learning situations such as size of classroom, same text of English, same amount of exposure, and same availability of teaching aids teaching aids npl → materiales mpl pedagógicos
teaching aids npl → supports mpl pédagogiques
teaching aids teach npl . Two instructors were involved in the study with similar educational background holding master's degrees master's degree
n.
An academic degree conferred by a college or university upon those who complete at least one year of prescribed study beyond the bachelor's degree.
Noun 1. in English, and having more than five years of teaching experience. Both instructors were English teachers English Teachers (airing internationally as Taipei Diaries) is a Canadian documentary television series. The series, which airs on Canada's Life Network and internationally, profiles several young Canadians teaching English as a Second Language in Taipei, Taiwan. , were proficient pro·fi·cient
adj.
Having or marked by an advanced degree of competence, as in an art, vocation, profession, or branch of learning.
n.
An expert; an adept. in English as measured by tests and interviews conducted by the educational zone as part of the requirements to work in a model school. Each instructor had one control group and one experimental group.
Materials
English as a foreign language (EFL) material was the focus of this study. The syllabus covered in the study is the same syllabus used by UAE elementary-prep school for the EFL course. This material was available into two forms: (a) hard copy for the control group, and (b) CALL in the form of CD-ROM, EFL Skills Developer[TM], that included video and sound clips, pictures, and the feature of interactivity for the experimental group. The CALL CD was designed and developed by an EFL teacher who was heavily involved in technology integration in EFL settings and who is currently working on a PhD degree, and by a computer science engineer, who had previous experience in computer programming and networking. EFL Skills Developer[TM] was developed, tested and validated to insure its high quality and appropriateness for the intended audience (see Appendix for samples of materials used in the study).
Instruments
Pretest pre·test
n.
1.
a. A preliminary test administered to determine a student's baseline knowledge or preparedness for an educational experience or course of study.
b. A test taken for practice.
2. . The pretest consisted of a test of English proficiency as a foreign language (EFL). It covered items that reflect overall understanding of the language such as grammar items, comprehension comprehension
Act of or capacity for grasping with the intellect. The term is most often used in connection with tests of reading skills and language abilities, though other abilities (e.g., mathematical reasoning) may also be examined. items, and vocabulary items, which are supposed to be covered in elementary-prep school curriculum with different degrees of depth. According to the EFL curriculum taught in UAE schools, students' proficiency in these EFL skills are supposed to increase as they go to higher grades.
The total test score was 100 points distributed among multiple choice and open-ended test items. The aim of the pretest was to measure the participants' general knowledge and competency in EFL before beginning the experimental treatment of using CALL. The test was created by EFL instructors in Al-Tamayooz elementary-prep school and validated by a number of EFL instructors and supervisors in Al-Ain school zone (district). In addition, it was validated by a number of professors of English and educational technology majors from UAE University. A pilot study was conducted in the second semester se·mes·ter
n.
One of two divisions of 15 to 18 weeks each of an academic year.
[German, from Latin (cursus) s of the academic year 2001-2002 in the same school. The reliability of the test, using alpha, was .85, while it was .87 using Guttman Split-half.
Posttests. The first part of posttest post·test
n.
A test given after a lesson or a period of instruction to determine what the students have learned. was identical to the pretest as it had the same type of items, number, and structure. The aim of this part of the test was to measure the difference of participants' knowledge and competency in EFL after the study was completed.
The second part of the posttest (distributed to the experimental group) was a questionnaire using a 7-point bipolar (1) See bipolar transmission.
(2) One of two major categories of transistor; the other is "field effect transistor" (FET). Although the first transistors and first silicon chips were bipolar, most chips today are field effect transistors wired as CMOS logic, which probability and evaluative scales to determine CALL users' overall attitude towards CALL, (b) perceived utility of using CALL, (c) perceived knowledge gain of EFL before and after the use of CALL, and (d) intention to use CALL in the future. It also included two open-ended questions A closed-ended question is a form of question, which normally can be answered with a simple "yes/no" dichotomous question, a specific simple piece of information, or a selection from multiple choices (multiple-choice question), if one excludes such non-answer responses as dodging a about the advantages and disadvantages of learning through CALL. This questionnaire had previously been validated and used by other researchers including Almekhlafi (2001, 2003), and Pryor (1990, 1994). It had an alpha reliability of .80.
Procedure
First, a meeting with the instructors was held to demonstrate the EFL Skills Developer[TM] software and to discuss the procedures of the study. Both teachers became proficient in the use of the software and knowledgeable about the relationship between the content covered by the software as correlated cor·re·late
v. cor·re·lat·ed, cor·re·lat·ing, cor·re·lates
v.tr.
1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation.
2. with the textbook textbook Informatics A treatise on a particular subject. See Bible. curriculum.
First, a pretest was given to all students in the four groups. After the pretest, each participant in the experimental group was given the CALL CD, EFL Skills Developer[TM], with a set of instructions on use, roles and responsibilities, and expectations to study independently at home according to a plan set by the instructor. The experimental group participants were taken to a computer lab to check their performance and give them directions on how to best use the software. Each student in the control group was given the corresponding material to study independently according to the same timeline provided to the experimental group.
All participants in all groups were instructed to prepare for the lesson by reading it, doing certain exercises, and answering questions. CALL users were instructed to prepare for the lesson by using EFL Skills Developer[TM] CD-ROM, while the control group prepared for the lesson using the hard copy materials. The participants in both groups were required to spend at least one hour daily, which was the estimated time to complete the exercises needed for the next day lesson. However, CALL users might have spent more time using CALL due to its interactivity and attractiveness.
As a check technique to make sure students did their work at home, the teacher checks students' preparation the next day. In class, each instructor taught both groups using regular classroom procedures and materials. Instruction lasted for three consecutive weeks (four sessions weekly). Two additional weeks were used for preparatory pre·par·a·to·ry
adj.
1. Serving to make ready or prepare; introductory. See Synonyms at preliminary.
2. Relating to or engaged in study or training that serves as preparation for advanced education: demonstrations with teachers and pre/post testing with students.
DESIGN
This study was a pretest/posttest experiment/control group design. Using SPSS A statistical package from SPSS, Inc., Chicago (www.spss.com) that runs on PCs, most mainframes and minis and is used extensively in marketing research. It provides over 50 statistical processes, including regression analysis, correlation and analysis of variance. 12.0, three main types of data analysis were used: (a) analysis of covariance Covariance
A measure of the degree to which returns on two risky assets move in tandem. A positive covariance means that asset returns move together. A negative covariance means returns vary inversely. (ANOVA) to control for variability in initial students' EFL level, (b) paired and independent sample t-tests, and (c) descriptive statistics descriptive statistics
see statistics. . Analysis of variance was used to test the null hypothesis null hypothesis,
n theoretical assumption that a given therapy will have results not statistically different from another treatment.
null hypothesis,
n "there is no differences between groups in achievement as a result of CALL use." Pretest was entered as a covariate while the posttest was entered as the independent variable. Paired t-tests were used to examine any differences in CALL users' perception of their knowledge gain as a result of using CALL. Independent sample t-tests were used to test any significant differences between CALL users based on computer competency, years of experience, and daily hours using computer. Descriptive statistics was used for 7-point bipolar scales investigating users' attitude towards and perception of the utility of CALL. For analysis of covariance and independent sample t-tests, the .05 level of statistical significance was selected.
The responses to the open-ended questions in the questionnaire were categorized cat·e·go·rize
tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es
To put into a category or categories; classify.
cat into topics and presented in a frequency table based on Weber's model (1990) for analogy and reporting qualitative data.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
To answer question number 1, Ho1 "there is no significant difference in students' achievement in English as a foreign language (EFL) between CALL users and nonusers due to treatment regardless of instructor?" was tested. The analysis of covariance rejected the null hypothesis revealing a significant difference between CALL users and nonusers. CALL users' achievement in EFL was significantly higher than nonusers (f = 94.79, p < .001). This significant difference between the two groups favoring CALL users was an indication of the effect of CALL on improving students' knowledge and competency in EFL (Table 1).
To answer question number 2, Ho2 "there is no significant difference in students' achievement in English as a foreign language (EFL) between participants due to instructor regardless of treatment?" was tested. The analysis accepted the hypothesis, which indicated that the instructor did not affect the students' achievement. In other words, CALL users' scoring significantly higher than nonusers indicated that the effect was due to CALL rather than other variables (see Table 1). As can be seen from Table 1, all users scored significantly higher than the control group regardless of the instructor. These results were in alignment with the principles of constructivism, which is used as part of the theoretical framework for this study. Constructivism claimed that technology could (a) provide a context for learning that supports both autonomy and relatedness, (b) could support self-regulation through the promotion of skills and attitudes, and (c) could strengthen the learner's tendency to engage in intentional learning processes. In addition, this significant difference is consistent with other studies that investigated the effect of CALL on learning foreign languages (Charischak, 2000; Vrtacnik et al.; 2000; Ayres, 2002; Nesselhauf & Tschichold, 2002; Egbert et al., 2002; Robert, 2002; Cushion & Dominique, 2002; Schwienhorst, 2002; Jung, 2002; Bayraktar, 2002; Chikamatsu, 2003; Fenfang, 2003).
To answer question 3 "Is there a significant difference in students' achievement in English as a foreign language (EFL) between participants due to the group-instructor interaction effects?" the results of the analysis rejected the hypothesis indicating a significant difference between means as a result of the group-instructor interaction. To explore the source of the interaction, Least Square Means were conducted. Results indicated significant interaction between all means with the exception of control-teacher A and control-teacher B (Table 2). This interaction could be all related to the use of CALL in the study.
To answer question 4, Ho4 was tested using independent sample t-tests. Results of the analysis rejected the hypothesis indicating that "Computer Competency," "Years of Computer Experience," and "Daily hours using computer" make a difference in benefiting from CALL. As can be seen from Table 3, CALL users with advanced computer competency, who had more years of computer experience, and who spent more time using computers scored significantly higher than CALL users who had lower computer competency, less computer experience, and spent less time using computers.
The mean scores for the first group were 83.89, 84.58, and 82.89 respectively while mean scores for the second group were 62.90, 64.24, and 62.86 (Table 3). This result suggests that to make maximum use of CALL, users should get some training to increase their computer competency.
To answer question 5, Ho5 "there is no significant difference between perceived knowledge mean scores of participants before and after the use of CALL (experimental group)" was tested using paired t-test. Result of the analysis rejected the hypothesis indicating that users' perception of knowledge gain as a result of using CALL was prevalent. There was a significant difference (p < .01) between the mean score of participants before and after use. Participants' mean score of their perceived knowledge of EFL before CALL use was 4.2 while it was 5.8 after use on a 7-point scale.
To answer question 6, Ho6 "CALL use has no effect on users' mean scores in attitude towards, perceived utility of, and have intention to use CALL in the future" was tested. Descriptive statistics were run and showed high mean scores on the above variables. CALL users' mean scores were 5.3, 5.9, and 6.0 respectively in attitude, utility, and intention to use CALL (Table 4).
The data showed that CALL users had a positive attitude toward CALL, perceived its utility for helping them learn EFL, and had a strong intention to use it in the future. This is also supported by their high scores on "Inclination inclination, in astronomy, the angle of intersection between two planes, one of which is an orbital plane. The inclination of the plane of the moon's orbit is 5°9' with respect to the plane of the ecliptic (the plane of the earth's orbit around the sun). to use CALL because it increases interaction with the course content," "Satisfaction with learning experience using CALL," and "Liking CALL being part of learning experience." This positive attitude and satisfaction with CALL lead to high intention to use CALL in the future because of the benefits users perceived, as predicted by the Fishbein's Attitude Theory, which was used as part of the theoretical framework. Results of study were in agreement with other studies pertaining per·tain
intr.v. per·tained, per·tain·ing, per·tains
1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident.
2. to attitude towards CALL (Escalada & Zollman, 1997; Holmes, 1998; Klassen & Milton, 1999; Robert, 2002; Vrtacnik et al., 2000; Noriko, 2002).
OPEN-ENDED RESPONSES
The questionnaire included two open-ended items; one of which asked CALL users to list the advantages of using CALL to learn the language, while the other asked the participants to list the disadvantages of using CALL to learn the language. Table 5 reports these advantages and disadvantages by frequency. The categories listed were created by the researcher using Weber's model (1990), and based on responses from CALL users. The categories reflected essential elements that were grouped according to meanings and given a label.
As can be seen from Table 5, "multimedia elements such as pictures and drawings," "improving learning and comprehension," "helping in doing course assignments," and "teaching reading and grammar" were the most prevalent advantages of CALL.
Study Limitations
1. Study sample was taken from Al-Ain, Abu Dhabi. Therefore, results might be generalizable gen·er·al·ize
v. gen·er·al·ized, gen·er·al·iz·ing, gen·er·al·iz·es
v.tr.
1.
a. To reduce to a general form, class, or law.
b. To render indefinite or unspecific.
2. only to Abu Dhabi, UAE.
2. The study was conducted in an elementary-prep school. Thus, results can not be generalized gen·er·al·ized
adj.
1. Involving an entire organ, as when an epileptic seizure involves all parts of the brain.
2. Not specifically adapted to a particular environment or function; not specialized.
3. to all K-12 schools or higher education institutions.
3. The study was conducted with EFL students whose mother tongue mother tongue
n.
1. One's native language.
2. A parent language.
mother tongue
Noun
the language first learned by a child
Noun 1. is Arabic. Results might not be generalized to non-Arabic speakers.
4. The study focused on male students. Results might not be generalized to both male and female students.
IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of CALL on learning EFL by elementary-prep school students in the UAE. Results showed that there was a significant difference in achievement between CALL users and nonusers in learning EFL. Study's results were in alignment with the results of Smith and Woody (2000); Triantafillou, Pomportsis, and Demetriadis (2003); Charischak (2000); Vrtacnik et al. (2000); Ayres (2002); Nesselhauf and Tschichold (2002); Egbert et al. (2002); Robert (2002); Cushion and Dominique (2002); Schwienhorst (2002); Jung (2002); Bayraktar (2002); Chikamatsu (2003); and Fenfang, 2003.
In addition, study results showed that the higher the computer skills, and the more computer experience, and the more time using computers, the more benefit language learners get from CALL. Thus, to maximize students' benefit from CALL, students should be trained on how to use CALL and should be encouraged to increase their competency of using computers. Furthermore, CALL users had a positive attitude toward using CALL and had a high intention and satisfaction to use it in the future due to their perception of its utility and educational benefits. Results also showed a high self-perception of knowledge gain as a result of using CALL.
Implications
Based on the results outlined, many implications can be concluded:
1. CALL could be a very useful tool for teaching EFL. It could be used as a classroom instructional tool, the effect of which was documented in research (e.g., Almekhlafi, 2004) or as an independent tool, the effect of which is documented in this study.
2. EFL teachers should be encouraged and given incentives to integrate CALL in their teaching, and hence improve their students language proficiency Language proficiency or linguistic proficiency is the ability of an individual to speak or perform in an acquired language. As theories vary among pedagogues as to what constitutes proficiency[1], there is little consistency as to how different organisations .
3. As the UAE is becoming an international market, where thousands of companies are pouring into the country, the integration of CALL in K-12 schools becomes important. Using CALL effectively will result in improving students' preparedness pre·par·ed·ness
n.
The state of being prepared, especially military readiness for combat.
Noun 1. preparedness - the state of having been made ready or prepared for use or action (especially military action); "putting them to deal with the new demands that require fluency flu·ent
adj.
1.
a. Able to express oneself readily and effortlessly: a fluent speaker; fluent in three languages.
b. in international languages.
4. Using CALL in and outside the classroom will help teachers meet individual differences in learning styles as technology can satisfy visual learners, auditory auditory /au·di·to·ry/ (aw´di-tor?e)
1. aural or otic; pertaining to the ear.
2. pertaining to hearing.
au·di·to·ry
adj. learners, and audio-visual learners.
5. CALL can give the language teacher some change in her/his role as certain activities can be given to students to work on at home using CALL.
Recommendations
However, to generalize generalize /gen·er·al·ize/ (-iz)
1. to spread throughout the body, as when local disease becomes systemic.
2. to form a general principle; to reason inductively. the effects of CALL on learning, the following recommendations for future research should be taken into consideration:
1. Research should be conducted to investigate the effect of CALL on learning English in K-12 schools, both public and private, and higher education institutions such as colleges and universities. Conducting such research might give better ideas on the effect of CALL on learning EFL, hence results will be more generalizable.
2. Further research is needed to study the use of CALL comparing classroom use versus individual use. Conducting a research where the whole class is using CALL as part of their daily lessons versus an independent use of CALL might give a better understanding of the best strategies to apply CALL in teaching and learning.
3. Further research is needed to study CALL taking gender into account. Comparing male versus female CALL use might shed some light on whether CALL effect on learning is affected by gender.
4. As this study was conducted with Arabic-speaking students. Further research is needed to investigate the effect on CALL on non-Arabic speaking students.
5. Qualitative research Qualitative research
Traditional analysis of firm-specific prospects for future earnings. It may be based on data collected by the analysts, there is no formal quantitative framework used to generate projections. such as observing students using CALL is needed. This kind of research might shed light on the best techniques and strategies to use CALL. Due to the fact that this study depended on quantitative data collection, conducting focus group interviews or students observations while using CALL will increase our understanding of CALL utility for learning EFL and the strategies users follow to maximize their benefit. (2)
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Notes
(1) Field independent refers to learners who are generally analytical in their approach of the environment. They tend to be intrinsically motivated mo·ti·vate
tr.v. mo·ti·vat·ed, mo·ti·vat·ing, mo·ti·vates
To provide with an incentive; move to action; impel.
mo and enjoy individualized learning. On the other hand, field dependent refers to learners who are more global in their perceptions and have difficulty separating the part from the complex organization of the whole (Witkin, Moore, Goodenough, & Cox, 1977).
(2) The researcher is grateful to Professor AbdulMoneim Hassan, Professor Yousef El-Emam of United Arab Emirates University United Arab Emirates University (in Arabic:جامعة الإمارات العربية المتحدة) was established in 1976, and is the oldest , and to Professor Peggy Kelly of California State University Enrollment
, San Marcus for their valuable ideas to improve the manuscript. APPENDIX
Samples of Materials Used in the Study
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Read the following passage, then answer the questions.
Today, mankind MANKIND. Persons of the male sex; but in a more general sense, it includes persons of both sexes; for example, the statute of 25 Hen. VIII., c. 6, makes it felony to commit, sodomy with mankind or beast. Females as well as males axe included under the term mankind. Fortesc. 91; Bac. Ab. is living in danger. It appears that we have come to the end of our journey. The earth, the only home we have, has become a dangerous place. It may explode into pieces at any moment.
Man has been living on this earth for thousands of years. It has given him everything he needed. Now, it has become dangerous because of many harmful inventions.
Unfortunately, science which provided many solutions to human problems has brought more fear and danger than hope and comfort. At first, it appeared to be the greatest friend and helper of man. It helped in curing many diseases and it promised to end hunger and poverty and change this earth to paradise.
But what has it actually accomplished? It has not eliminated the difficulties of life. Man still suffers in some parts of the world from poverty, famine famine
Extreme and protracted shortage of food, resulting in widespread hunger and a substantial increase in the death rate. General famines affect all classes or groups in the region of food shortage; class famines affect some classes or groups much more severely than , death and destruction
It's true that science has brought many comforts to man and has made his life easier. But this gift was poisoned by evil and greedy greed·y
adj. greed·i·er, greed·i·est
1. Excessively desirous of acquiring or possessing, especially wishing to possess more than what one needs or deserves.
2. spirits of those selfish self·ish
adj.
1. Concerned chiefly or only with oneself: "Selfish men were . . . trying to make capital for themselves out of the sacred cause of human rights" Maria Weston Chapman. men of mankind. The advanced, powerful nations exploit and oppress op·press
tr.v. op·pressed, op·press·ing, op·press·es
1. To keep down by severe and unjust use of force or authority: a people who were oppressed by tyranny.
2. the weaker and smaller countries. Also, science has broken up established institutions. Therefore, it has not produced a better and happier world for everybody.
One has to admit that science is a double-edged weapon. If it is directed to the welfare of life it will be blessing, otherwise it will be a curse Curse
Ancient Mariner
cursed by the crew because his slaying of the albatross is causing their deaths. [Br. Poetry: Coleridge The Rime of the Ancient Mariner]
Andvari
king of the dwarfs; his malediction spurs many events in the .
Answer the questions below and then click "submit" to send your answers.
A. Mark the following sentences True or False by clicking in the radio button:
1. Man nowadays lives in peace and welfare.
True
False
2. Science failed to eliminate the difficulties of life.
True
False
3. Science and technology have evil deeds deed
n.
1. Something that is carried out; an act or action.
2. A usually praiseworthy act; a feat or exploit.
3. Action or performance in general: Deeds, not words, matter most. and good deeds.
True
False
4. Curing diseases are one of the merits of science.
True
False
5. Science has brought more hope than fear.
True
False
B. Fill in the missing information in the following sentences:
The earth has become a dangerous place because of many ____________________
6. Man still suffer in some parts of the world from ______________________, death and destruction
The advanced powerful nations exploit and the weaker and smaller countries.
C. Answer the following questions:
7. What did scientific inventions promise to be in the beginning?
8. When can science be blessing?
End of Part One
Letter Writing
1. Write a letter to your friend, Rashid, in Qatar telling him about the importance of the Internet.
Your name is Ahmed and your address is P.O. Box 896 Al- Ain.
Write in the window below, don't forget to use the proper layout.
ABDURRAHMAN GHALEB ALMEKHLAFI
United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
almekhlafi@uaeu.ac.ae
Table 1 Difference Between CALL Users and Nonusers in EFL Achievement
Source SS DF MS F p
Between groups 4585.82 1 4585.82 94.79 .00**
Between instructors 80.700 1 80.70 .67 .20
Group-instructor interaction 312.477 1 312.48 6.46 .01*
Error 3773.74 78 48.38
Total 391922.22 83
**p<.01 *p<.05
Table 2 Resource of Interaction between Group (Experimental vs.
Control) and Teacher (Teacher A vs. Teacher B)
Interaction
Group LS Mean E-A E-B C-A C-B
Experimental-teacher A (E-A) 70.7 -- 0.008** 0.00** 0.00**
Experimental-teacher B (E-B) 76.7 -- -- 0.00** 0.00**
Control-teacher A (C-A) 59.5 -- -- -- 0.38
Control-teacher B (C-B) 57.6 -- -- -- --
**p<.01
Table 3 Differences in Mean Scores of Posttest of CALL Users Based
on Time, Computer Competency, Years of Experience, and Daily Time
Using Computers
Variable Group1 Group2 t
Computer Competency (1) 62.90 83.89 -5.2**
Years of Experience (2) 64.24 84.58 -4.9**
Daily hours using computer (3) 62.86 82.89 -4.7**
**p < .01
(1) Users were categorized into two groups based on their computer
competency. The first group included the participants who reported below
average (on a 5-point scale extending from Advanced to Beginner)
computer competency (n=23) and the other group included participants who
reported average or higher computer competency (n=18).
(2) Users were categorized into two groups based on the number of years
of computer experience: The first group included the participants who
reported 3 years or less of computer experience (n=24) and the other
group included participants who reported more than 3 years of computer
experience (n=16).
(3) Users were categorized into two groups based on the daily number of
hours they reported using computers: The first group included the
participants who reported less than 3 hours daily using the computer
(n=21) and the other group included participants who reported 3 or more
hours using computers (n=19).
Table 4 CALL Users' Mean Scores on Attitude, Utility, and Intention to
Use It in the Future and Other Related Variables
Variable Mean SD
Overall attitude toward CALL 5.3 1.8
Utility of CALL for understanding course content 5.9 1.4
Intent to use CALL in the future to learn about course 6.0 1.4
content
Ease of use of CALL 5.9 2.0
Experience using computer-based CDs 6.1 1.7
Comfort using CALL to learn course content 6.2 1.1
Inclination to use CALL because of its educational benefits 6.0 1.3
Inclination to use CALL because of interaction increase 6.3 1.3
Satisfaction with learning experience using CALL 6.2 1.6
I like CALL being part of my learning experience 5.8 1.8
Note. The items were based on a 7-point bipolar probability and
evaluative scales extending from extremely high or positive (7) to
extremely low or negative (1).
Table 5 Frequency of the Advantages and Disadvantages of CALL as
Reported by Users
Advantages
Multimedia Elements (e.g., pictures, sound, drawings, colors) 18
Improving learning and comprehension 16
Helping in doing course assignments 12
Teaching reading and grammar 11
Helping in doing well in exams 9
Entertaining 5
Disadvantages
Computer problems 3
Difficult to use 3
Note. Themes were created by researcher based on participants' responses
to the open-ended items.COPYRIGHT 2006 Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE)
No portion of this article can be reproduced without the express written permission from the copyright holder.
No portion of this article can be reproduced without the express written permission from the copyright holder.
Copyright 2006, Gale Group. All rights reserved. Gale Group is a Thomson Corporation Company.
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