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| Article Excerpt This study investigated the effect of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) on elementary-prep school students' improvement in English as a foreign language (EFL). Eighty-three students in Al-Tamayoz Elementary-prep School, United Arab Emirates, were selected and divided into experimental and control groups (43 and 40 participants respectively). Results of Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed a significant difference between CALL users and nonusers in favor of the experimental group (p < .05). In addition, a questionnaire was administered to CALL users to investigate their attitude, perceived utility, and intention to use CALL in the future. Students in the experimental group had a positive attitude toward CALL, perceived its utility for helping them learn EFL, and had a strong intention to use it in the future. Results of this study have provided evidence of the effect of CALL on learning English as a foreign language. Implications and recommendations for future research are presented. ********** Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is a technique for using technology in the field of language learning. Many studies worldwide have been conducted to investigate the effect of CALL on learning languages. Research results demonstrated a positive effect of CALL on students' learning and language competency. In the context of UAE, studies involving CALL use are minimal. Almekhlafi (2004) investigated the effect of interactive multimedia (IMM) CD-ROM on the achievement of sixth grade students in relation to their learning styles. Results showed no significant difference between the two groups in the overall achievement. However, results showed that field-independent learners scored significantly higher than field-dependent (1). One of the recommendations stated in the study was that IMM should be investigated as an individualized learning tool. Therefore, this study focused on independent CALL use by elementary-prep school students in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). It investigated the effect of CALL on students' achievement of English as a foreign language (EFL) and their attitude toward CALL use. According to Wikipedia encyclopedia (2005), CALL is defined as an approach to language teaching and learning in which computer technology is used as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement, and assessment of material to be learned, usually including a substantial interactive element. In the light of this definition and for the purpose of this study, the researcher defines CALL as the use of multimedia CD-ROM combining text, pictures, audio, and video files for the purpose of teaching English as a foreign language. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Research on the effect of technology in general on teaching and learning has been conducted and continues to be investigated. One of the most prominent fields of research has been on interactive multimedia and its effect on leaning in different fields including language learning. Literature review for the purpose of this study focuses on two domains (a) multimedia and language learning and teaching, and (b) CALL. The Use of Multimedia in Teacher Education Many researchers have called for and emphasized the importance of the inclusion of technology in teacher education (Volk, 2000; Gentile, Lonberger, Parana, & West, 2000; Chester, 2001; Schnackenberg, Luik, Nisan, & Servant, 2001; & Berlin & White, 2002). Educational research investigating the utility of technology for learning and teaching has been continuous for several decades. One form of this integration is with the use of multimedia. The educational benefits of multimedia are well documented (Moore, 2000). Multimedia has been used with student teachers to improve their training and hence the quality of education (Almekhlafi, 2004). However, multimedia research was not always consistent in its results. Some studies yielded positive effect (Soboleva & Tronenko 2002; Moreno, Mayer, Spires, & Lester, 2001; Frear & Hirschbuhl, 1999; Vignola, Kenny, Andrews, & Schilz, 1999; James, 1999; Vrtacnik et al., 2000; Buckley, 2000; Wydra, 2001; Cairncross & Mannion, 2001; Almekhlafi, 2001), while others did not (Smith & Woody, 2000; McKethan, Everhart, & Sanders, 2001; Vichitvejpaisal et al., 2001; Nutta et al., 2002; & Hayes, Taub, Robinson III, & Sivo, 2003). In the field of language learning, multimedia has been investigated by many researchers. Results indicated a positive effect of multimedia on learning languages (Liou, 1995; Johnston & Milne, 1995; Asay, 1995; Chun & Plass, 1996; Al-Segheer, 2001; Tsou, Wang, & Li, 2002; Noriko, 2002). Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) Research CALL research has been ongoing for decades investigating CALL use in different contexts and with different languages worldwide. Its potential for learning and teaching in the field of foreign languages has been discussed and documented by many researchers (Crosby, 1997; Peterson, 1998; Charischak, 2000; Vrtacnik et al., 2000; Ayres, 2002; Nesselhauf & Tschichold, 2002; Egbert, Paulus, & Nakamichi, 2002; Robert, 2002; Cushion & Dominique, 2002; Schwienhorst, 2002; Jung, 2002; Bayraktar, 2002; Chika-matsu, 2003; Fenfang, 2003). Charischak (2000) stated that for long time, basic drill and practice software programs dominated the market in CALL. Supporting this claim, Robert (2002) pointed out that the use of computers to assist learners in their language studies has increased phenomenally over the past decade. Cushion and Dominique (2002) described how recent technological developments have provided the possibility of overcoming technical problems in conjunction with the Java programming language and the Unicode character numbering system. Schwienhorst (2002) discussed CALL and focused on the benefits of virtual reality environments, particularly for foreign language contexts. For many years, foreign language teachers have used the computer to provide supplemental exercises. Recently, due to technology advancement, teachers started to consider the use of computers as an essential part of daily foreign language teaching and learning. Technology has the potential to play a major role in foreign language teaching and learning. A lot of attention has been paid to the use of CALL in foreign languages teaching and learning. In other words, CALL gained considerable attention from different entities including researchers and writers. Peterson (1998) stated that CALL has developed from small beginnings into a major element in many university language programs in Japan. The number of individual educators incorporating CALL materials into their classes has increased markedly. This increase of interest in CALL, and educational technology in general, has also been manifested in the increase in the number of CALL facilities created within universities and schools. Some writers devoted whole books for the discussion of CALL. For example, Kulik and Kulik (1991) stated that a meta-analysis of findings from 254 controlled evaluation studies showed that computer-based instruction (CBI) usually produces positive effects on students. The studies covered learners of all age levels from kindergarten pupils to adult students. In the year 1997, The Computer Assisted Language Learning Journal devoted a special issue, "The virtual learning environment," reviewed by Crosby (1997) for CALL environment and effect on learning and teaching. Following the same path, Levy (1997) wrote Computer Assisted Language Learning: Context and Conceptualization, a discussion of CALL including a historical review of CALL projects from the 1960s to the 1990s. Conrad (1996) noted that there had been a meager output of CALL effectiveness research published by the recognized second language acquisition journals, and that the 19 empirical studies he did uncover represent almost as many different specific areas of CALL applications. Research conducted in this area has documented many positive effects on students' achievement and learning. Recently, Jung (2002) presented a bibliography on CALL. Most citations were post-1997 journal articles and book publications. In a similar vein, Bayraktar (2002) conducted a meta-analysis of the effectiveness of computer assisted instruction (CAI) on student achievement in secondary and college science education compared to traditional instruction. Results showed a small positive effect for CAI use when used in simulation or tutorial models, with individual computer use, and when used as a supplement to traditional instruction. Attitudes towards CALL and other types of technology have been investigated. In most cases, positive attitudes towards CALL were documented. For example, Escalada & Zollman (1997) demonstrated in their study, the effects on student learning and attitudes of using interactive digital video in the physics classroom, showing that interactive video materials were appropriate for the activity-based environment used in the course on concepts of physics. Klassen and Milton (1999) evaluated the effectiveness of a multimedia based English language learning program at a Hong Kong university. Results demonstrated positive attitudinal changes for the multimedia enhanced mode of learning. Similarly, Vrtacnik et al. (2000) stated that most of the studies reported about higher achievements and better attitudes towards science and computers when computer-based approaches were introduced in the classroom. More recently, Ayres (2002) examined students' attitudes towards the use of CALL and reported that the subjects' attitudes towards English Learning increased significantly. The study also revealed that there was a link between pupils' attitudes and their level of computer literacy, language level and age. Holmes (1998) surveyed 100 Japanese first year students investigated the influence of CALL in their language classroom and on language education in Japan in general. Similarly, Robert (2002) examined students' attitudes towards the use of CALL, and their perceived view of its relevancy to their course of study. Vrtacnik et al. (2000) examined the effects of interactive multimedia tutorial teaching unit on students' perception and understanding of chemical concepts in the Netherlands. Following the same path, Noriko (2002) developed a language tutor program to develop learners' grammatical and sentence production skills in Japanese language. The study revealed that students' achievement improved tremendously. To measure their attitude towards the program, the researcher designed a questionnaire. The results indicated an enthusiastic student response. Likewise, Chikamatsu (2003) pointed out that CALL gains popularity and is becoming standard in foreign language classrooms. The researcher examined the effects of computers on writing efficiency and quality among intermediate learners of Japanese. One of the findings was that accuracy rates and number of kanji characters used were significantly different, indicating that learners benefited from computer writing. From previous research, it can be concluded that the use of CALL is very beneficial for language learning and students' attitudes toward CALL was positive, particularly if CALL applications were well-designed and used. For example, CALL effectiveness and students positive attitudes toward it was documented in many research studies (Conrad, 1996; Vrtacnik et al.; 2000, Ayres, 2002; Bayraktar, 2002; Jung, 2002; Noriko, 2002; Robert, 2002). THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK As the use of CALL in this study involved the use of technology and participants' attitude towards this use, Fishbein's (1963, 1967) Reasoned Action Theory (RAT) and constructivism were used as the theoretical framework to illuminate the results of the study. The RAT developed by Fishbein, is a cognitive theory that is designed to predict and explain any human behavior that is under volitional control. It deals with the relationships between beliefs, attitudes, subjective norms, intentions, and behavior (Chitamun & Finchilescu, 2003). It is usually used to investigate attitude toward an object or some specific behavior toward that object (Almekhlafi, 2001). The theory has been tested, validated, and used by many researchers (Pryor, 1990, 1994; Trost et al., 2002; Zint, 2002; Chitamun & Finchilescu, 2003). Trost et al. used RAT to evaluate the relative utility of the theory in explaining intentions and physical activity behavior in white and African-American eighth-grade girls. Similarly, Zint used RAT to predict science teachers' intention to incorporate environmental risk education. Constructivism refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves building upon the foundation of their previous learning. Constructivism is being applied in different fields, one of which is in technology rich classrooms. Collins (1991) pointed out that technology appeared to be coming down on the side of constructivists, who have been trying to change the prevailing societal view of education. According to Collins, studies show that in technology rich classrooms there are many observable changes as opposed to traditional instruction, some of which are: (a) students are more actively engaged, (b) students learn different things instead of all students learning the same thing, and (c) an integration of both visual and verbal thinking instead of the primacy of verbal thinking. Lebow (1993) described five principles of the application of constructivism on technology, These principles are: (a) provide a context for learning that supports both autonomy and relatedness, (b) embed the reasons for learning into the learning activity itself, (c) support self-regulation through the promotion of skills and attitudes, and (d) strengthen the learner's tendency to engage in intentional learning processes, especially by encouraging the strategic exploration or errors. These changes and principles come side by side with constructivism principles. Bailey (1996) pointed out that new technology, such as the use of multimedia, can afford rich opportunities for constructivist approaches in the field of education. Hence, constructivism is an appropriate framework for this study as it will be able to explain any results yielded as a result of independent CALL use. Similarly, RAT will interpret CALL users' attitude toward its use. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Due to the fact that the number of students studying foreign languages is increasing worldwide, the need to improve their proficiency in these languages is crucial. English language is becoming an international language and is being used widely in businesses, universities, and other domains of life. Research efforts have been going on to investigate ways to improve learning languages including learning English as a foreign language. One of the most recent efforts institutions, universities, and companies have been pursuing is to enhance the process of language learning has involved computer technology (Al-Sagheer, 2001), in the form of CALL. Research on the effect of CALL on learning EFL in the UAE has not yet drawn researchers' attention. Most importantly, the UAE has a unique cultural and historical origin. It is working hard to become a global citizen where international companies and entities can prosper in the county. Thus, the UAE is committed to developing a well-educated population with proficiency in international languages, particularly English. Due to the fact that EFL in the UAE schools is taught on average 4-6 periods weekly, and its use is limited to the classroom, students' EFL proficiency is limited and does not meet higher education institutions demands. There have been complaints from universities and colleges that K-12 students' preparation in English is weak. Furthermore, students speak their native language outside the classroom and at home. This negatively affects EFL and results in a decrease in students proficiency. Hopefully, CALL will constitute the solution to overcome the language competency problem of school students. Due to its flexibility, students can use CALL inside and outside classroom. They can use it as drill-and-practice software. They can use it as a reinforcement or a remediation tool to strengthen their English language competency. Consequently, students can join UAE universities and colleges with a strong background. It is worth mentioning that UAE main university scientific colleges (e.g., Engineering, Information Technology, and Science) teach their curriculum in English. Recently, the college of Education at the UAE University, which is the main public college, in the country, started to teach many of its courses in English. Hence, building a strong English language background will definitely result in better education. In addition, this study investigated CALL effects on learning EFL as an effort to increase EFL proficiency hoping to start the steering wheel for CALL research in the UAE. Taking Almekhlafi's (2004) research recommendation into account, this study focused on the independent use rather than classroom use of CALL by elementary-prep school students in the UAE. RESEARCH QUESTIONS The study addressed the following questions: 1. Is there a significant difference in students' achievement in EFL between CALL users and nonusers due to treatment regardless of instructor? 2. Is there a significant difference in students' achievement in EFL between participants due to instructor regardless of treatment? 3. Is there a significant difference in students' achievement in EFL between participants due to the interaction effects on achievement? 4. Does CALL have any effect on students' achievement in EFL based on their computer competency, years of computer experience, and number of hours using the computer daily? 5. Does the use of CALL affect the students' perceived knowledge gain of EFL achievement? 6. Does the use of CALL affect students' attitude toward, perceived utility, and intention to use it in the future? HYPOTHESES Ho1: There is no significant difference in students' achievement in EFL between CALL users and nonusers due to treatment regardless of instructor? Ho2: There is no significant difference in students' achievement in EFL between participants due to instructor regardless of treatment? Ho3: Is there a significant difference in students' achievement in EFL between participants due to the group-instructor interaction effects? Ho4: There is no significant difference between achievement mean scores of CALL users based on their computer competency, years of computer experience, and number of hours using the computer daily? Ho5: There is no significant difference between perceived knowledge gain mean scores of participants before and after CALL use (experimental group). Ho6: CALL use has no effect on users' mean scores in attitude towards, perceived utility of, and intention to use CALL in the future. METHOD Participants Participants in the present study were 83 elementary-prep school students with an age span of 11 to 13 years old. They were studying EFL in the academic year 2003-2004. These students were randomly chosen from Al-Tamayoz elementary-prep school, located in Al-Ain, Abu Dhabi in the UAE. Participants' English language proficiency was intermediate as determined by language tests conducted by their teachers who participated in the data collection. One of the reasons could be because EFL is considered as one of seven courses in the curriculum students study every academic year. EFL in the UAE school is taught from 1st grade and aims at preparing students to be able to communicate in English and join university programs that provide content instruction in English. The overall content of EFL in the UAE takes all language skills into account. On average, EFL is taught for one hour a day of structured English instruction. In addition, English is not used as a means of communication in everyday life. The EFL syllabus used in the study is the syllabus mandated by the Ministry of Education and Youth, which is a series of textbooks chosen to be used in UAE schools. The CALL material is the same materials in the textbooks as it was developed for that purpose. As the study was conducted in a model school, technology infrastructure and access was granted for all students. The school had a computer lab with a multimedia capability, a videoconferencing unit, a technology coordinator, and a computer engineer. Participants' computer literacy is good for the following reasons: First, Al-Tamyooz is one of the models schools that pay special attention to technology integration into the curriculum. Computer is taught to all students as a subject. Students study computer applications and learn different computer skills regularly. They spend at least two class periods weekly at the computer lab using numerous software application and productivity tools such as interactive multimedia CD-ROMs. Second, the majority of students at Al-Tamyooz, as reported by the teachers, own their computers at home. Therefore, participants experience with computers is sufficient enough to enable them to use CALL successfully. Participants' selection was random regardless of the classes. The final number of participants yielded 43 students in the experimental group and 40 students in the control group; a total of four classes. All subjects have the same learning situations such as size of classroom, same text of English, same amount of exposure, and same availability of teaching aids. Two instructors were involved in the study with similar educational background holding master's degrees in English, and having more than five years of teaching experience. Both instructors were English teachers, were proficient in English as measured by tests and interviews conducted by the educational zone as part of the requirements to work in a model school. Each instructor had one control group and one experimental group. Materials English as a foreign language (EFL) material was the focus of this study. The syllabus covered in the study is the same syllabus used by UAE elementary-prep school for the EFL course. This material was available into two forms: (a) hard copy for the control group, and (b) CALL in the form of CD-ROM, EFL Skills Developer[TM], that included video and sound clips, pictures, and the feature of interactivity for the experimental group. The CALL CD was designed and developed by an EFL teacher who was heavily involved in technology integration in EFL settings and who is currently working on a PhD degree, and by a computer science engineer, who had previous experience in computer programming and networking. EFL Skills Developer[TM] was developed, tested and validated to insure its high quality and appropriateness for the intended audience (see Appendix for samples of materials used in the study). Instruments Pretest. The pretest consisted of a test of English proficiency as a foreign language (EFL). It covered items that reflect overall understanding of the language such as grammar items, comprehension items, and vocabulary items, which are supposed to be covered in elementary-prep school curriculum with different degrees of depth. According to the EFL curriculum taught in UAE schools, students' proficiency in these EFL skills are supposed to increase as they go to higher grades. The total test score was 100 points distributed among multiple choice and open-ended test items. The aim of the pretest was to measure the participants' general knowledge and competency in EFL before beginning the experimental treatment of using CALL. The test was created by EFL instructors in Al-Tamayooz elementary-prep school and validated by a number of EFL instructors and supervisors in Al-Ain school zone (district). In addition, it was validated by a number of professors of English and educational technology majors from UAE University. A pilot study was conducted in the second semester of the academic year 2001-2002 in the same school. The reliability of the test, using alpha, was .85, while it was .87 using Guttman Split-half. Posttests. The first part of posttest was identical to the pretest as it had the same type of items, number, and structure. The aim of this part of the test was to measure the difference of participants' knowledge and competency in EFL after the study was completed. The second part of the posttest (distributed to the experimental group) was a questionnaire using a 7-point bipolar probability and evaluative scales to determine CALL users' overall attitude towards CALL, (b) perceived utility of using CALL, (c) perceived knowledge gain of EFL before and after the use of CALL, and (d) intention to use CALL in the future. It also included two open-ended questions about the advantages and disadvantages of learning through CALL. This questionnaire had previously been validated and used by other researchers including Almekhlafi (2001, 2003), and Pryor (1990, 1994). It had an alpha reliability of .80. Procedure First, a meeting with the instructors was held to demonstrate the EFL Skills Developer[TM] software and to discuss the procedures of the study. Both teachers became proficient in the use of the software and knowledgeable about the relationship between the content covered by the software as correlated with the textbook curriculum. First, a pretest was given to all students in the four groups. After the pretest, each participant in the experimental group was given the CALL CD, EFL Skills Developer[TM], with a set of instructions on use, roles and responsibilities, and expectations to study independently at home according to a plan set by the instructor. The experimental group participants were taken to a computer lab to check their performance and give them directions on how to best use the software. Each student in the control group was given the corresponding material to study independently according to the same timeline provided to the experimental group. All participants in all groups were instructed to prepare for the lesson by reading it, doing certain exercises, and answering questions. CALL users were instructed to prepare for the lesson by using EFL Skills Developer[TM] CD-ROM, while the control group prepared for the lesson using the hard copy materials. The participants in both groups were required to spend at least one hour daily, which was the estimated time to complete the exercises needed for the next day lesson. However, CALL users might have spent more time using CALL due to its interactivity and attractiveness. As a check technique to make sure students did their work at home, the teacher checks students' preparation the next day. In class, each instructor taught both groups using regular classroom procedures and materials. Instruction lasted for three consecutive weeks (four sessions weekly). Two additional weeks were used for preparatory demonstrations with teachers and pre/post testing with students. DESIGN This study was a pretest/posttest experiment/control group design. Using SPSS 12.0, three main types of data analysis were used: (a) analysis of covariance (ANOVA) to control for variability in initial students' EFL level, (b) paired and independent sample t-tests, and (c) descriptive statistics. Analysis of variance was used to test the null hypothesis "there is no differences between groups in achievement as a result of CALL use." Pretest was entered as a covariate while the posttest was entered as the independent variable. Paired t-tests were used to examine any differences in CALL users' perception of their knowledge gain as a result of using CALL. Independent sample t-tests were used to test any significant differences between CALL users based on computer competency, years of experience, and daily hours using computer. Descriptive statistics was used for 7-point bipolar scales investigating users' attitude towards and perception of the utility of CALL. For analysis of covariance and independent sample t-tests, the .05 level of statistical significance was selected. The responses to the open-ended questions in the questionnaire were categorized into topics and presented in a frequency table based on Weber's model (1990) for analogy and reporting qualitative data. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION To answer question number 1, Ho1 "there is no significant difference in students' achievement in English as a foreign language (EFL) between CALL users and nonusers due to treatment regardless of instructor?" was tested. The analysis of covariance rejected the null hypothesis revealing a significant difference between CALL users and nonusers. CALL users' achievement in EFL was significantly higher than nonusers (f = 94.79, p < .001).... |
Kamis, 23 Desember 2010
The effect of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) on United Arab Emirates English as a foreign language (EFL) school students' achievement and attitude.
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